16.0 DEFINITION OF RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of particles or radiation by unstable atomic nuclei of an element as they decay to more stable forms. This process releases energy. Such element is said to be radioactive.
16.1 TYPES OF RADIATION AND THEIR PROPERTIES
- Alpha (α) particles.
- Beta (β) particles.
- Gamma (γ) rays.
16.2 NUCLEAR REACTIONS

It can be defined as a reaction which involve changes in the nucleus (protons and neutrons), often converting one element into another. In nuclear reactions, mass and atomic numbers must be conserved. For example, Uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay:
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
- Natural radioactivity – Occurs naturally in unstable isotopes like uranium.
- Artificial radioactivity – Created by bombarding stable isotopes with particles like neutrons, causing it to become unstable (e.g., the production of isotopes like Technetium-99 in reactors).
16.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHEMICAL AND NUCLEAR REACTION
16.4 HALFLIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT
Half–life (symbol t½) is the time required for a quantity (of substance) to reduce to half of its initial value. It can also be defined as the time taken for half the atoms in a radioactive material to decay.
EXAMPLE – A radioactive substance has a half-life of 10 years. If you start with 100 g of the substance, how much remains after 30 years?
SOLUTION – After 30 years (3 half-lives), the amount remaining will be:
= 100 × (½)3
= 100 × ⅛
= 12.5 g
16.5 SIMPLE NUCLEAR EQUATIONS
Nuclear equations are representations of nuclear reactions that show the reactants on the left side of an arrow and the products on the right. Nuclear equations are written using nuclide symbols, or codes that represent the nuclides and radiation involved in the reaction.
When balancing nuclear equations, ensure that both the mass number (top) and atomic number (bottom) are conserved.Here are few examples of balanced nuclear equation:
16.6 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
The applications of radioactivity span diverse industries and contribute significantly to their advancements. Some of these applications include:
- MEDICINE
- Radioactive isotopes such as Cobalt-60 and Iodine-131 are used to target and destroy cancer cells through radiation therapy.
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses radioactive tracers like Fluorine-18 to produce detailed images of organs and tissues.
- Gamma rays from Cobalt-60 are used to sterilize surgical instruments and medical supplies, ensuring they are free from pathogens.
- Technetium-99m is widely used in nuclear medicine to detect abnormalities in various organs through imaging techniques.
- Iodine-131 is used to treat hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer by destroying overactive thyroid cells.
- INDUSTRY
- Gamma rays or X-rays are used to inspect the integrity of welds, pipelines, and structural materials without causing damage.
- Nuclear reactors use Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239 to generate electricity through controlled fission reactions.
- Radioactive isotopes like Cobalt-60 are used to kill bacteria and parasites in food, extending its shelf life and ensuring food safety.
- Radioactive tracers are injected into wells to track fluid flow and detect potential oil and gas deposits underground.
- Beta radiation is used to measure the thickness of materials such as paper, plastic, and metal during manufacturing.
- AGRICULTURE
- Radiation is used to induce mutations in plants, creating new crop varieties with improved characteristics such as drought resistance or higher yields.
- The sterile insect technique involves irradiating male insects, making them sterile and reducing pest populations when released into the wild.
- Radiation is used to delay the ripening of fruits and vegetables, preserving them for longer periods during transport and storage.
- ARCHAEOLOGY AND GEOLOGY
- Carbon-14 dating is used to determine the age of ancient artifacts, fossils, and archaeological remains by measuring the decay of radioactive carbon.
- Isotopes like Potassium-40 are used to date geological formations and rocks by measuring the ratio of parent isotopes to daughter products.
- ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
- Radioactive isotopes are used to track the movement of pollutants in air, water, and soil, helping to study environmental contamination.
- Radioactive tracers help scientists map ocean currents and study the mixing of water masses in the oceans.
- SPACE EXPLORATION
- Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), using Plutonium-238, provide power for space probes, satellites, and rovers where solar power is insufficient (e.g., Voyager, Mars rovers).
- Radiation measurements in space missions help develop protective shielding for astronauts against cosmic rays and solar radiation.
- SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Radioactive materials are used in experimental nuclear physics to study atomic structures, particle interactions, and nuclear reactions
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