30.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF O.A.U

The Organization of African Unity (O.A.U.) was formed on the May 25 , 1963 in Addis Ababa Ethiopia and has its headquarters there. The organization came into existence after a long debate as to how the continent of Africa should be reorganized and strengthened so that their independence could be attained and maintained and to eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa.

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THE MAIN ORGANIZATIONS WHICH COMPROMISE TO FORM THE ORGANIZATION

1. Casablanca Group: This group was made up of Morocco, Ghana, Libya, Guinea, Algeria, United Arab Emirate, Mali and came into being on January 1961.
2. Monrovia Group: This Group consisted of Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Tunisia, Somalia and Togo. This group met in Liberia on May 1960.
3. Brazzaville Group: This group was made up of twelve member countries. These include Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Congo, Dahomey, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Upper Volta, Madagascar, Niger and Senegal. This group adopted their declaration to join O.A.U. on December 13, 1960.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF O.A.U

1. Promotion of Unity: One of the aims and objectives of O.A.U is to promote the unity and solidarity of African States.
2. Living Condition: To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and effort to achieve a better life for the people of African States.
3. Common Defense: Members agreed to defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African States.
4. To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa
5. Promotion of International Peace: Member States agreed to work with other organizations like U.N.O to promote international peace and Cooperation having due regard for U.N Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
6. To promote peaceful resolution of conflicts among member states through negotiation, mediation, consultation and arbitration.
7. United Front: To speak with one voice on World affairs so as to present a united front.
8. To preserve the African personality, culture and tradition.

PRINCIPLES OF O.A.U

1. Sovereignty: All the members of O.A.U are sovereign and equal. No state should be under the control of any other state.
2. Non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.
3. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of members states
4. Peaceful settlement of dispute by negotiation, mediation, reconciliation or arbitration.
5. Affirmation of the policy of non-alignment with regard to all blocs
6. Resistance to all forms of political assassination and as well as subversion.
7. Absolute dedication to the total emancipation of all African States.

ORGANS OF O.A.U

A.      THE ASSEMBLY OF HEADS OF STATES AND GOVERNMENT: The Assembly of heads of states and government is the supreme and most powerful organ of the organization. It is the highest decision-making machinery of the Organization.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY OF HEADS OF STATES AND GOVERNMENT

1. Appointment of Secretary General: It is the function of the Assembly of Heads of States and Government to appoint Secretary General of the organization.
2. Admission of New Members: The Assembly of Heads of States and Government decide on the admission of new members States into the organization.
3. Amendment of the Charter: It is the duty of the Assembly of Heads of States to approve proposals for any amendment to the charter of the organization.
4. Coordination of Policies: The Assembly of heads of State discusses issues of common interest to Africa so as to coordinate and harmonize the general policy of the organization.
5. The body reviews the structures, functions and activities of all the organs and specialize agencies created by the organization.

B.      ORGANS OF O.A.U – COUNCIL OF MINISTERS – The council consists of foreign affair Ministers of member States or such other ministers as may be determined by a member state. It prepares the agenda for the meeting of the Assembly of Heads of States and Government and implements the decision of the Assembly

FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

1. The council prepares the agenda for the meeting of the Assembly of Heads of States and Government.
2. The council approves the budget of the organization.
3. It implements the decision of the Assembly
4. The council makes recommendation to the Assembly for the appointment of Secretary General of the organization.
5. The council recommends a new independent state to the Assembly for admission into the organization.
6. The council is responsible to the Assembly and deals with all matters referred to it by the Assembly.
7. The council is responsible for coordinating and harmonizing inter-African cooperation. 8. It prepares the annual budget of the organization.

C.      THE GENERAL SECRETARIAT – This is the administrative organ of the organization. The head is the Secretary – General who is the chief administrative officer

FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERAL SECRETARIAT

1. The General secretariat carries out all the administrative work of the organization.
2. This body prepares programme or agenda for the meeting of the Council of Ministers.
3. It supervises and executes the decisions of the Council of Ministers
4. The secretariat prepares the annual report on the activities of the organization.
5. The secretariat has the duty of circulating news to member states of the organization.
6. It prepares the annual budget of the organization for the approval of the Council of Ministers.
7. The Secretariat controls the finance of the organization
8. The facilities needed for all meetings of the organization are provided by the secretariat.

D.      THE COMMISSION FOR MEDIATION, CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION

This commission is responsible for the peaceful settlement of disputes between member states. It was set up in 1965 and has twenty members elected by the Assembly from a list submitted by the Secretary General.

SPECIALIZED COMMISSION THAT WAS SET UP

1. The Economic and Social Commission
2. The Educational and Cultural Commission
3. Health Commission
4. The Defense Commission
5. Scientific, technical and Research Commission

ACHIEVEMENTS OF O.A.U

1. Resolution of Conflict: The O.A.U facilitates peaceful resolution of conflicts among member states. Indeed it has encouraged the peaceful resolution of conflict among member states, such as Somalia and Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda etc.
2. Eradication of Colonialism and Apartheid: The O.A.U played an important role in bringing colonialism and apartheid to an end in the continent. It did not only condemn them but also supported liberation movements in countries like Zimbabwe and Angola.
3. Economic Cooperation: The O.A.U encourages economic cooperation among member states. The African Development Bank (A.D.B.) which renders assistance to member states is one of the economic initiatives of O.A.U.
4. Promotion of African Culture: The O.A.U supports efforts to project African culture to the outside world. The Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) is a point in time.
5. Settlement of Refugees: O.A.U provides refuge for people displaced by war and environmental disaster. Such assistance includes provision of relief materials to the refugees.
6. Common Voice: On some issues, the O.A.U has provided opportunity for common position at the international arena. Such issues like trade and disarmament has attracted common and uniform stand by African countries speaking through O.A.U.
7. It provides African leaders forum for discussion on issue of importance to Africa and the entire world.
8. O.A.U in collaboration with other international organization like U.N.O, has contributed to world peace and security.

WEAKNESSES OR PROBLEMS OF O.A.U

1. Financial Problem: One of the major problems facing O.A.U since its inception is financial problem. Activities of O.A.U have been impeded by insufficient fund. Some member states default in their contributions. This has over the years hindered the execution of many O.A.U resolutions.
2. Political Instability: Constant change of leadership result in policy changes and this affects the degree of support for the organization’s decisions.
3. Economic Dependence: Although members of the O.A.U are politically independent, economically, they are not free from external control and this forced them to depend on economically advanced nations. This economic dependence which is the aftermath of colonialism makes member states to dance to the tune of foreign nations at the expenses of O.A.U.
4. External Influence: Many African countries are still attached to their formal colonial powers. Some times there is divided loyalty by the member nations to the O.A.U and their formal colonial masters.
5. Lack of a Standing Army: The organization has no standing army since its 26 years of birth. The organization can not fight colonialism and apartheid because of this problem.
6. Inter State Rivalry and Suspicion: Sometimes there is supremacy struggle between leaders and different motives are read to suggested proposals.
7. Persistent Conflict: The frequent and recurrent wars and serious conflict between and within states shows that the organization has not been very effective in guaranteeing peace and security in the continent.
8. Linguistic Problem: Language barrier tend to slow down any effective means of communication adopted by the organization this leads to its failure in so many ways.
9. Religious Difference: Member-states of O.A.U belong to different religious beliefs and this has equally turned into two parallel lines that can never meet on any issue.

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30.2 AFRICAN UNION

(HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE)

The African Union was established on Monday 8th of July 2002 by African Heads of State in Durban South Africa. This marked the end of organization of Africa Unity (O.A.U) after 39 years of its existence.The formation of African Union (A.U) was initiated by Libyan leader Moamen Gadhafi, who first proposed it as a full blown “United States of Africa.”

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. To promote democracy and fundamental human rights.
2. To facilitate economic development in Africa.
3. To end the senseless wars and conflicts causing so much pain and suffering to Africa.
4. To defeat poverty, disease and ignorance in the continent.
5. To promote deep and strong political, economic and social integration among members states.
6. To introduce a single currency for the African continent.

30.3 COMMON WEALTH OF NATION

The Common Wealth of Nation is a voluntary association of the independent Countries who were formerly British Colonies. It is made up of Britain and Countries that were at one point in time or the other British colonies. The United States of America, though a former British colony, is not a member.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The origin of Commonwealth started with British desire to conquer greater part of the world as its empire. All the territories acquired by Britain formed the British Empire. Countries like Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa who were formerly Brother colonies were granted responsible and representative governments in the 19th century. With that status, these countries were granted the freedom to elect their own legislature, manage their own internal affairs but they were still linked with Britain and their governors were still representing the queen of England.

MEMBERSHIP OF COMMONWEALTH

1. The prospective country, must be a former territory or colony of Britain
2. The prospective country must have gained full political independence
3. The prospective country must be ready to accept or recognize the British Monarch as the permanent Head of Commonwealth
4. The prospective member country must be prepared to accept other member-states as equals and reframe from racial discrimination.

FEATURES OF COMMON-WEALTH MEMBER NATION

1. In all the Commonwealth member-nations, English is the common official language spoken.
2. The British Monarch (Queen of English) is the Head of the Commonwealth
3. Most of the member –nations adopts the British style of parliamentary government
4. Member-nations modeled their system of education on British type
5. Participation in the Common-wealth games and sports by member-nation
6. There is general co-operation among member-nations in the areas of international affairs, trade, finance, defense, law, medicine, agriculture etc
7. Member state adopt the English Common law
8. Frequent signing of defense pact between some member-nations

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COMMON WEALTH

1. Solution to problems: To cooperate and find solutions to problems confronting its member nations in the areas of education, trade, finance, medicine, agriculture, science, sports etc.
2. Common Understanding: One of the aims and objectives of common wealth is to facilitate common understanding among the members.
3. Territorial Integrity: It was formed so as to respect and protect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of member nations.
4. Promotion of Sporting Activities: Promotion of sports among member states so that it will enhance the spirit of friendship and cooperation. This is held every four years.
5. Common wealth was established in order to bring about economic development of member-states through the offering of financial, material, manpower and technical aids.
6. To discuss the common language, English and speak with one voice in matters of international affairs.

ORGANS OF COMMON WEALTH AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A.           The Prime Minister’s Conference; The prime minister’s conference is the highest organ of the Commonwealth. This organ is composed of the Heads of State and government of member-states or their accredited representatives.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRIME MINISTER’S CONFERENCE

1. Approval of Budget: It is the sole responsibility of the Prime Minister’s of member-states to receive and approve the budget of the organization.
2. Appointment of the Secretary-General: It is the body that appoints the Secretary-General of the organization.
3. Discussion of Problems: The Prime ministers of member-states discuss issues, problems as they affect member states and give recommendations or solutions for such problems.
4. Power of Sanction: The Prime minster of member-states has the power to sanction any member that does not adhere to the aims and objectives upon which the organization was established for example, Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth in 1995 for the violation of human right i.e the killing of Ken Saro Wiwa and other 8 Ogoni citizen.
5. Receives Reports: The organ receives reports and endorsed the report of the organization submitted to it by the secretariat.

B.            The Secretariat: The secretariat of the Commonwealth was established in 1965. The secretariat is headed by a Secretary General and is located in London. The first Secretary General of the Common wealth is Arnold Smith (1965-1975) and he is from Canada and was followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal (1975-1990) from Guyeana. He was succeeded by Chief Emeka Anyaoku from Nigeria (1990-2000).

FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARIAT

1. It organizes conferences of heads of state and government of member states.
2. It prepares the report of the organization.
3. The secretariat performs administrative functions
4. It prepares the annual report on the activities of the organization.
5. It provides facilities for all the meetings of the organization.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

1. Common wealth award scholarship to deserving students within member state countries
2. Member states of commonwealth help one another to discuss common problems and also profer solutions to such problems.
3. Member states of commonwealth speaks the same language, which is English language. This makes communication easy.
4. Member states engage in sporting activities every four years, this helps to strengthen the relationship among them.
5. The rich countries help the poor ones by granting of loans or financial assistance.

PROBLEMS OF COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

1. Foreign Policies: One of the problems facing Commonwealth is that its member-nations pursue different foreign policies.
2. Problem of South Africa: South Africa’s apartheid policy is still a problem that is threatening to divide member-nations of the Commonwealth.
3. No Common Currency: Member-nations no longer have a common currency, as it use to be tied to British pound sterling.
4. Compliance with Decision: Another major problem facing Commonwealth is that it has no power to compel its member-nations to comply with its decision and implement its resolution.
5. Restriction of Movement: Members of Commonwealth no longer have free movement to immigrants from Commonwealth countries. For example, Nigerians traveling to Britain should require a visa.
6. Charter: Commonwealth has no charter like UNO and OAU. Therefore, there are no formal rules governing it.
7. Political Instability: Most of the member-nations especially the developing ones are constantly faced with political instability e.g. Military intervention in the political system.
8. The Issue of EEC: One of the problems facing Commonwealth is the fact that its member-nations belong to many different other organizations which make them to have divided interest and loyalty to commonwealth e.g. the OAU, ECOWAS, EEC etc.
9. Secession: Another problem is that member states can easily secede or pull out of the body.

30.4 UNITED NATION ORGANIZATION (U.N.O)

ORIGIN

The United Nation Organization came into being on October 24, 1945 as a successor to the League of Nations, which collapsed as a result of the Second World War. The formation of the U.N.O. was led by the victorious powers, which were United Kingdom, America, Russia and China. The United Nation has its headquarters in New York, United States of America. Admission into the U.N.O is open to all peace loving countries.

PRINCIPLES OF U.N.O

1. Respect for the sovereign equality of all nations.
2. Provision of military assistance to troubled states when it is called to do so.
3. Promotion of democratic principles.
4. Maintenance of international peace and security.
5. The use of force in settling dispute should be discouraged.
6. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
7. Unity and cooperation among member nations.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF U.N.O

1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To settle disputes through peaceful means.
3. To respect the sovereignty of member states.
4. To promote and encourage respect for human rights.
5. To develop friendly relations among states.
6. To accelerate the independence of trust territories.

ORGANS OF THE U.N.O

A.           THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY: The General Assembly is the central organ of the U.N.O. Its membership includes all member countries of the U.N.O. Each state is entitled to five representatives or delegation. The Assembly meets once in a year on regular session. The General Assembly has the power to deliberate on any matter that falls within the jurisdiction of the organization’s interest. On important matters, decisions are made by two –third of the members present to vote. Decisions on ordinary matters are reached by a simple majority. The chairmanship of the Assembly is held for one year and rotated among member-states.

FUNCTIONS OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

1. Deliberative function: It provides a forum for the discussion of world peace and security and to make recommendation for the resolution of conflicts.
2. Approval of annual budget: It is the function of the General Assembly to discuss and approve the annual budget of the organization.
3. Voting: The General Assembly has the power to vote on issues of international importance.
4. Admission: It is the duty of the General Assembly to admit new members into the organization.
5. Education: The body elects non-permanent members into the Security Council and judges of international courts of justice.
6. Settlement of dispute: It settles disputes by peaceful means and eradicates the causes of war and threat of wars.
7. Annual report: The General Assembly considers annual reports by the secretary-general e.g the state of the World address.
8. It guides jealously the realization of fundamental human rights and freedom for all people.

B.            THE SECURITY COUNCIL – The Security Council has fifteen members. The membership was enlarged from eleven to fifteen in 1965. Out of the fifteen members, five, namely; The United States of America, Russia, China, France and Britain are permanent members. They also have wielded veto power. There are ten non-permanent members of the Security Council. They are elected by the General Assembly for a two-year term

FUNCTIONS OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL

1. Peace and Security: The major function of the Security Council is to maintain peace and security in the World.
2. It makes recommendation to the General Assembly for the appointment of Secretary-General.
3. It makes annual and special report to the General- Assembly.
4. It recommends the admission of new member state.
5. It investigates any matter that can lead to war and effect peaceful resolutions.
6. It recommends the suspension and expulsion of erring member –states to the General Assembly for consideration.
7. A veto by any of the permanent member nullifies a decision.
8. The organ elects the judges of the World court in collaboration with the General Assembly.

C.            THE SECRETARIAT – This is the administrative unit of the U.N.O. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General. He is responsible for the supervision and co-ordination of the activities of all the organs. The Secretary General is elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five year term. He can be re-elected.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARIAT

1. The secretariat handles all U.N.O. correspondence.
2. It gives annual report of U.N.O to General Assembly.
3. The secretariat performs administrative functions as the administrative headquarters of the organization.
4. It makes available all the materials needed for all meetings of the organization.
5. It serves as the information center of the organization.
6. It carries out the recruitment of U.N. staff.

D.           THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL – The council comprises member states who administer trust territories, permanent members of the Security Council and other members determined and elected by the General Assembly. It oversees the administration of non-self-governing territories under member countries. Its relevance has diminished with the independence of virtually all countries.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

1. It is responsible for the supervision of territiories placed under the international trusteeship system.
2. The council help tp promote the economic, social, political and educational development of these people.
3. The council receives and considers progress reports submitted by member countries.
4. It encourages trust countries towards their self government.
5. The council pays periodic official visits to the trust territories to assess the progress going on there.
6. The council accepts and considers petitions from the trusteeship areas

E.            THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE – This is the judicial organ of the U.N.O. It is also known as the World court. It has its headquarters in Hague, Netherland and it has 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the security for a period of nine years. Members of the court can be re-elected at the expiration of their term of office and their appointment is on full time basis.

FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

1. This organ is the main judicial organ of the U.N.O.
2. The court settles disputes among member-countries of U.N.O brought before it.
3. It gives legal advice to the U.N.O and the specialized agencies.
4. The court interprets international conventions and agreements.
5. The court makes the decisions of the court binding on member-states in disputes.

F.            THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL – The council is made up of 27 members of which are elected by the General Assembly for a period of three years with retiring members eligible for immediate re-election. This council is mainly responsible for all economic and social activities of the U.N.O. Settlements of issues or matters are reached by simple majority vote.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

1. The council is responsible for the economic and social activities of the U.N.O.
2. It prepares reports on the activities of all U.N.O agencies.
3. It organizes international conferences to examine the economic and social development problems of the World.
4. It makes recommendation for the promotion of fundamental human rights.
5. It gives information and assistance to the Security Council.
6. It involves in coordinating the activities of specialized agencies e.g Food and Agricultural Organization.

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SPECIALIZED AGENCIES OF U.N.O.

Specialized agencies are bodies that are independent which exist under the umbrella of the U.N.O. These agencies are given special assignments which help U.N.O. to achieve its aims and objectives. The activities of these specialized agencies are coordinated and supervised by the min organ of the U.N.O. called the Economic and Social Council.

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION

This agency was established 1919 by the League of Nations with headquarter in Geneva.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION

1. Improvement of workers: It was established to help improve labour condition of workers
2. Standard of living: It was established to raised the standard of living World wide.
3. Promotion of economic and Social stability: It was formed to enhance the promotion of economic and Social stability.
4. Child Labour: It campaigns against child labour and slavery.
5. Research: It conducts extensive research in the field of power and vocational training.
6. Celebrates Workers Day: It celebrates May 1st of every year as worker’s day World wide.

30.4I WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION.(W.H.O.)

W.H.O. was established in 1948 and has its headquarters in Geneva and regional offices all over the World.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. Training of medical personnel: It was established to assist in training medical personnel.
2. Method of teaching: To improve the standard of teaching and training in the field of health.
3. To improve the health sector: To improve the knowledge and standard of health all over the World by sending medical team to countries in need.
4. To improve nutrition, housing, sanitation, recreation, economic or working condition.
5. Coordination: To direct and co-ordinate international health work in the World.
6. Epidemic diseases: To ensure that epidemic and diseases are completely eradicated from the World.
7. Provision of materials: To provide and materials to developing nations to improve their health facilities.
8. Disease Monitoring: To respect the outbreak of infectious diseases in one country to other countries of the World.
9. Drug Administration and Control: It controls the manufacturing and distribution of dangerous drugs.
10. Creation of Standard: To help in standardizing the quality and dosage of drugs.
11. Control: To suggest ways of controlling the spread of infections all over the World.

30.4II FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION (F.A.O.)

F.A.O. was established in 1945 and has its headquarter in Rome.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. Production of Food: It is mainly concerned with fighting hunger in the World by helping its members to grow more food.
2. To improve the production and distribution of agricultural products to all parts of the World.
3. Provide advice: It improves useful advice on food storage, fertilizer usage and oil erosion.
4. Relief Materials: The agency sends relief materials in form of food and money to disaster areas.
5. Credit Facilities: It provides credit facilities to agricultural sector.
6. Conservation of Natural Resources: It helps in the conservation of natural resources like environment, lakes, and forests and so on.
7. Provision of technical assistance: This agency sends experts to countries that need assistance of such technocrats.

30.4III UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)

UNESCO is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16, 1945. UNESCO has 195 member states and 6 associate members. The organization is based in Paris, with over 50 field offices and many specialized institutes and center throughout the World. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programmes, which are; Education, Natural Science, Social and Human Sciences, Cultural and Communication and information.

PURPOSE OF UNESCO

1. UNESCO was formed with the purpose of encouraging universal respect for justice, human rights and the fundamental freedoms.
2. The UNESCO as an international organization must serve the ends and objectives of the United Nations, which in the long perspective are World ends for humanity as a whole.
3. UNESCO was set up to help to manage natural and earth’s resources like water and water quality, the ocean and promoting science and technology.
4. It was established to promote basic human rights and focuses on global issues like fighting, discrimination and racism.
5. To maintain cultural diversity, as well as the protection of cultural heritage.
6. To promote communication and information worldwide and to empower people through access to information and knowledge.

30.4IV UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN EMERGENCY FUND (UNICEF)

UNICEF was established on December 11, 1946, with its headquarter located in New York, U.S.A. It works with children in 158 countries.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF UNICEF

1. To supply drugs and equipment to children who suffers from different kinds of diseases in the World.
2. It assists in setting up welfare, nutrition and health activities of children in developing countries.
3. To provide food to children in order to improve their nutrition.
4. UNICEF works cooperatively with I.L.O.(International Labour Organization) to improve occupational health.
5. To supply materials and equipment that can help in training of children.
6. It releases fund in time of emergencies.
7. It assists W.H.O to train medical personnel in rural areas.

30.4V INTERNATIONAL MONETRAY FUND (I.M.F.)

The International Monetary Fund (I.M.F.) was set up after the Second World War, in order to encourage the development of foreign trade. It started operation in 1947 with headquarter in Washington, U.S.A. Presently, it has about 188 member countries.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF I.M.F

1. To established and stabilize exchange rate among member nations.
2. To make fund available to members to finance balance of payment deficit.
3. To make recommendations to members concerning economic policies to be adopted.
4. To encourage the development of international trade.
5. To promote cooperation among member countries on financial matters.
6. To facilities settlement of debts in foreign transactions.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF U.N.O

1. Contribution to International Security: The U.N. has so far succeeded in averting war at World wide dimension. Although war has not been completely prevented, the U.N. has helped in reducing tension and conflict e.g Libya and Chad. The case between Nigeria and Cameroon was settled in favour of Cameroon.
2. Prevention of another World war: One of the achievements of the U.NO. is that the organization since its establishment after the Second World war, has prevented the outbreak of a third World war. For example the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq was quickly contained by the major powers by collectively expelling Iraq from Kuwait.
3. Peace-keeping operations: The U.N. has contributed greatly to the peace process in different countries and regions through peace keeping exercises e.g. Yugoslavia, Somalia, Lebanon, etc.
4. Promotion of Fundamental Human Rights: The U.N. has played a commendable role in promoting respect from human rights and dignity.
5. Achievement of Independence: The Trusteeship Council has helped in this respect by assisting some territories that have not gained independence to do so. For example, Namibia got her independence through the efforts of the U.N.O.
6. Promotion of cooperation among countries on regional bsis as a way of ensuring regional development. U.N. made provision for financial assistance to the regional organizations like, European Union (E.U.), O.A.U etc.
7. Settlement of refugees: The U.N plays a key role in providing shelter, food and medicine for displaced people in different parts of the World e.g Africa.
8. Promotion of development programmes: Through its specialized agencies, the U.N.O provides economic assistance to less developed countries. Also, educational, health, cultural and aids to its member states especially developing countries.
9. ARMS limitation: The U.N. encourages arms reduction through its non-proliferation treaties between the two super powers –USSR and USA.
10. Condemnation of Apartheid: The U.N.O has helped in no small measure in the fight against apartheid policy. For example the U.N.O. fight against apartheid in South Africa, is a case in point.

PROBLEMS OF THE U.N.O

1. Shortage of Fund: The ability of the U.N. to carry out its functions effectively partly rests on availability of funds. The U.N. is handicapped by lack of adequate finance. Some member states default in payment of contribution.
2. Veto Power: The exercise of veto power by the five permanent members of the Security Council has rendered the Security Council in particular and U.N. in general impotent. This is a threat to World peace and security because of the selfish interest for which the veto power is used.
3. Difference in Ideology: The ideology of member states in areas like culture, politics And methods used in pursuing economic goals differs. There is also ideological rivalry between the communist East and Capitalist West, which has affected the aims and objectives of the U.N.O.
4. Peace Keeping: The U.N. since its existence has not being able to live up to expectation in the area of peace keeping, just like the League of Nations it replaced. The U.N.O. suffer from lack of unanimous acceptance by the factions involved in war in some member countries meant to be mediated by U.N. peace-keepers.
5. Poor World Economic Condition: One of the concerns of the U.N. is improving the living standards of the people. The World is currently witnessing deteriorating living conditions in many areas.
6. Problem Posed by Big Powers: The U.N. has proved helpless in cases of aggression involving the major powers. The so called big powers seem to be above the U.N. to the extent that the organization cannot control them. For example, American aggression in Vietnam and Soviet attack on Afghanistan.
7. Language Barrier: Language is a major problem to U.N. as speeches in the General Assembly are interpreted into the at least five major languages.
8. Suspicion Among Member States: Some activities of the U.N. are sometimes negatively affected by the suspicion among member states. For instance, Iraq strongly believe that the U.N. inspection team was a spying agent of the United States of America and as such refused to co-operate with them.
9. Non-implementation of Resolutions: The U.N. has not been able to implement its resolutions. They are passed all the time by the organization especially on South Africa but their implementation has suffered a major set back.

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30.5 ECONOMIC COMMUINITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

FORMATION OF ECOWAS

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was created by the Treaty in Lagos, Nigeria, on 28th May, 1975. It was created to promote economic trade, national cooperation and monetary union, for growth and development throughout West Africa. The administrative headquarters of the community is located in Abuja, while the fund raising headquarters is located in Lome, Togo. The establishment of the organization was masterminded by General Yakubu Gowon of Nigeria and President Eyadema of Togo. There are currently 15 member countries in the Economic Community of West African States. The founding members of ECOWAS were : Benin, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania (left 2002), Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and Burkina Faso ( which joined as Upper Volta). Cape Verde joined in 1977.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ECOWAS

1. To promote cooperation and integration in all fields of economic activities.
2. To raise the living standard of the people.
3. To increase and maintain economic stability.
4. To foster closer relations among member states.
5. To contribute to the progress and development of the African Continent.
6. To eliminate custom duties within the ECOWAS sub-region.
7. To remove obstacles to free movement of goods and people among members states.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF ECOWAS

1. The body has removed all customs duties in the areas of importation and exportation of goods within the sub-region.
2. Member states cooperate in the areas of sports and culture.
3. ECOWAS has helped to unite the people of member nations irrespective of the differences in ideology, beliefs and so on.
4. Formation of ECOMOG: ECOMOG was formed through ECOWAS to help maintain peace in the sub-region and it helped to restore democracy in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
5. Member states of ECOWAS spoke against Apartheid in South Africa and neo-colonialism.
6. The organization helped in removing all administrative restrictions on trade within the sub-region.
7. Member states mediate in disputes among states, e.g. Nigeria and Chad, Liberia, Sierra Leone and so on.
8. The body has eliminated obstacles to movements of persons, services and capital within the sub-region.

PROBLEMS OR WEAKNESSES OF ECOWAS

1. Language barrier: Member states of ECOWAS do not speak the same language.
2. Free movement: The free movement as provided by the Charter of ECOWAS is no longer automatic.
3. Different Ideology: Difference in ideology hinders the progress of the organization.�
4. Common currency: The organization does not have a common currency.
5. Political instability: Frequent change in government of some countries hinders the successful operation of the organization.
6. Poor transportation and communication: These are some of the problems facing the organization
7. Similarity of products: Member states of ECOWAS manufacture similar products which makes trade among ECOWAS states difficult.
8. Fear of domination: Smaller states within the ECOWAS sub-region are afraid of being dominated by the larger states.
9. Shortage of fund: Most member states of ECOWAS do not pay their dues which hinders the organization form executing its projects.
10. Colonial masters: The political and economic activities of member states are tied to that of their former colonial master. So, their first loyalty goes to their former colonial masters not to ECOWAS.

30.6 ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC)

ORIGIN OF OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (0PEC) , comprises of 13 third world petroleum producing countries , formed in 1960 to promote and protect the interest of its members. OPEC as an organization was formed as a reaction to the exploitative motives of multinational companies, which as at that time were controlling oil operation in the oil producing countries in 1960

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF OPEC

1. OPEC was established so as to stabilize price of oil in the World market
2. To co-ordinate and unify: OPEC was formed to co-ordinate and harmonize oil policies of member nations to bring them in line with the standard set by OPEC.
3. Steady Income: It was also formed to stabilize oil income of its members states.
4. To ensure steady supply of oil to consuming nations.
5. Quota: To fix and allocate production quotas to member nations.
6. Protection of member states: It was formed to protect the interest of member states and also to ensure the participation of foreign multi-national companies in oil exploitation does not threaten the interest of member nations.
7. To negotiate for the participation of member nations in oil exploitation and exploration.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF OPEC

1. The organization has created a forum where member states can resolve their problems.
2. The organization has put the activities of multi-national companies to check.
3. The common fund established by the organization has helped to reduce the financial problems of the members.
4. The organization has encouraged member states to take part in oil exploration.
5. OPEC has succeeded to some extent in regulating production of oil and raising the prize of oil in recent time.

PROBLEMS OF OPEC

1. The issue of quota: Member states do not abide by the directives of the organization on oil quota.
2. The discovery of North sea oil and the competition is a great threat to prize stabilization.
3. Oil storage: The rate at which some developed countries are storing crude oil, is a great threat to OPEC.
4. Frequent international crisis has affected the prize of oil. e.g the Gulf war (1990-1991).
5. Economic depression worldwide can bring down the prize of oil.
6. Research: Some developed counties are carrying out research to find alternative to oil. This has negatively affected the prize of oil.

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