8.1 BOOTING AND SHUTTING DOWN

• Booting: The process of starting the computer system.
  1. The CPU receives power and executes the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) stored in ROM.
  2. The BIOS performs the POST (Power-On Self Test) to check essential hardware.
  3. The BIOS locates and loads the Operating System into RAM.
  4. The OS takes control, and the user interface appears (Desktop).
• Types of Booting:

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• Cold Booting: Starting the computer from a completely powered-off state.
• Warm Booting: Restarting the computer while it is still powered on (e.g., using the Restart button or Ctrl+Alt+Del).
• Shutting Down: The orderly process of closing all open files and programs and turning off the operating system to prevent data loss.
• Desktop Features: Icons (shortcuts), Taskbar (shows running programs), Start Menu (access to programs/settings).

8.2 COMPUTER DATA CONVERSION

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• Registers: Small, high-speed temporary storage locations located inside the CPU. They are the fastest form of memory.
  • Types of Registers: MDR (Memory Data Register – holds data/instructions being transferred to/from memory), CIR (Current Instruction Register – holds the instruction currently being executed), Accumulator (stores intermediate results of the ALU).
• Registers vs Main Memory: Registers are faster, much smaller capacity, and closer to the ALU/CU than Main Memory (RAM).
• Bus: A collection of electrical conductors (wires) used to transmit data between components.
  • Address Bus: Carries the memory location address where data is to be read from or written to.
  • Data Bus: Carries the actual data being transferred.
  • Control Bus: Carries signals used to manage and synchronize all components.
• Data $\to$ Information Process: Data Entry (Input) $\to$ Storage (Memory) $\to$ Processing (CPU) $\to$ Output (Information).
• Factors Affecting Data Transfer: Bus Width (more wires = more data at once), Bus Speed (faster clock rate), and CPU Speed/Clock Rate.

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